One important characteristic of academic writing is that all the sources of information that the writer has used need to be indicated, not just as a bibliography or list of references, but also in or alongside the text. In some cases, the source will be the main subject of the sentence, in others the sources may be mentioned parenthetically (in brackets) or via a notation system (e.g. footnotes). The more common verbs and verb phrases used in academic writing for referring to sources are given below. Note that different referencing systems are used in different disciplines.

General descriptions of the relevant literature:

• A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ......
• There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of ……

General reference to previous research/scholarly activity (usually more than one author):

• Many historians have argued that ...... (e.g. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994)
• Numerous studies have attempted to explain ..... (for example, Smith, 1996; Kelly, 1998; Johnson, 2002)

There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or short paper. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:

• Establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic
• Indicate an issue, problem, or controversy in the field of study
• Define the topic or key terms
• State the purpose of the essay or piece of writing
• Provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing

Slightly less complex introductions may simply inform the reader: what the topic is, why it is important, and how the writing is organised. In very short assignments, it is not uncommon for a writer to commence simply by stating the purpose of their writing and by indicating how it is organised.

Introductions to research dissertations and theses tend to be relatively short compared to the other sections of the text but quite complex in terms of their functional elements. Some of the more common elements include:

• Establishing the context, background and/or importance of the topic
• Giving a brief review of the relevant academic literature
• Identifying a problem, controversy or a knowledge gap in the field of study
• Stating the aim(s) of the research and the research questions or hypotheses
• Providing a synopsis of the research design and method(s)
• Explaining the significance or value of the study
• Defining certain key terms
• Providing an overview of the dissertation or report structure

Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realize these and other functions are listed under the headings on the following pages of this section. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed. Also, the order in which the different categories of phrases are shown reflects a typical order but this is far from fixed or rigid, and not all the elements are present in all introductions.

A number of analysts have identified common patterns in the introductions of research articles. One of the best known is the CARS model (create a research space) first described by John Swales (1990). This model, which utilizes an ecological metaphor, has, in its simplest form, three elements or moves:

• Establishing the territory (establishing importance of the topic, reviewing previous work)
• Identifying a niche (indicating a gap in knowledge)
• Occupying the niche (listing purpose of new research, listing questions, stating value, indicating structure of writing)

Stating the aims of the current research (note frequent use of past tense)

• The specific objective of this study was to …
• An objective of this study was to investigate ...
• This study set out to investigate the usefulness of ...
• The objectives of this research are to determine whether ...
• This prospective study was designed to investigate the use of …
• The aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of …
• This study therefore set out to assess the effect of X ..., and the effect of ...
• The main aim of this study is to investigate the differences between X and Y.
• Part of the aim of this project was to develop software that is compatible with ...
• There were two primary aims of this study: 1. To investigate ... 2. To ascertain ...
• This study seeks to obtain data which will help to address these research gaps.
• One purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which these factors were ...
• The purpose of this investigation was to explore the relationship between X and Y.
• The aim of this research project has therefore been to assess the doses and risks associated with ...

Various Phrases Used to State Aims

• This study set out to explore …
• This study aimed to determine whether …
• The objective was to try and establish what ...
• The main goal was to better understand the …
• This research aimed to find a new method for …
• The study aimed to evaluate how effective …
• The purpose was to assess the feasibility of …
• The study aimed to test the hypothesis that …
• The goal was to explore the influence of …
• The objective was to clarify several aspects of ...
• The aim was to investigate the impact of …
• The aim was to identify the predictors for …
• The aim was to develop an understanding of ...
• The study aimed to gain further understanding of …
• The aim was to compare the two ways of treating …
• The study aimed to examine the relationship between …
• The study aimed to evaluate a new method of measuring …
• The aim was to determine the predictive validity of the…
• The aim was to understand the views and experiences of …
• The aim was to review in detail the available information on …
• The study aimed to describe some of the more recent developments in …
• The study aimed to shine new light on these debates through an examination of ...

Stating purpose of the current research with reference to gaps or issues in the literature

• The current study aimed to address these questions using …
• limitations in two ways.
• problems through the use of …
• gaps in the existing literature by …
• discrepancies and investigate the …
• concerns through the development of …
• challenges by identifying methods applicable to …
• issues by reviewing the scientific and technical data …

Stating the purpose of the thesis, dissertation, or research article (note use of present tense)

• This thesis examines the way in which the ...
• This dissertation seeks to explain the development of ...
• This case study seeks to examine the changing nature of ...
• The overall aim of this thesis is to review the evidence for …
• This thesis applies methods in parametric models to address …
• This article examines the emerging role of X in the context of ...
• This paper systematically reviews the data for..., aiming to provide ...
• This thesis intends to determine the extent to which ... and whether ...
• This dissertation aims to unravel some of the mysteries surrounding ...
• Drawing upon two strands of research into X, this paper attempts to ...

Various Phrases Used to State Purpose

• This paper aims to explore the role of …
• This thesis seeks to develop a framework for …
• This research aims to investigate the impact of …
• This study aims to extend our understanding of …
• This thesis aims to identify and describe factors that …
• This dissertation aims to provide a deeper understanding of …
• This paper aims to compare the clinical performance of …
• This thesis aims to evaluate behavioral interventions in …
• This research aims to examine and explain the processes which …
• This study aims to better understand the relationship between …

In any research, establishing clear research questions or hypotheses is crucial to define the scope and direction of the study. This section delves into the process of formulating research inquiries or hypotheses, which serve as guiding principles for the investigation. By articulating precise questions or hypotheses, researchers not only articulate their objectives but also delineate the boundaries of their study, enabling systematic exploration and analysis of the subject matter. Let's explore how researchers set out their research questions or hypotheses to steer their inquiry effectively.

• The hypothesis that will be tested is that ...
• The research questions in this study focused on …
• The central question in this dissertation asks how ...
• Specifically, the following issues will be addressed: …
• The specific questions which drive the research are: …
• This research seeks to address the following questions:
• The key research question of this study was whether or not ...
• This study aimed to address the following research questions: …
• The study sought to answer the following specific research questions: …
• In particular, this dissertation will examine six main research questions: …

The methodological framework of a study provides a roadmap for conducting research, outlining the approach and techniques employed to address the research questions or hypotheses. This section illuminates how researchers describe their research design and the methods utilised, offering insights into the systematic approach adopted to gather and analyse data. By transparently delineating the research design and methods, researchers ensure the credibility and reproducibility of their findings, facilitating scholarly discourse and advancing knowledge in the field. Let's delve into how researchers articulate their methodological framework to facilitate rigorous and systematic inquiry.

• Data for this study were collected using...
• Five works will be examined, all of which …
• A mixed-method approach was employed using …
• This investigation takes the form of a case-study...
• This study draws on two theoretical frameworks …
• Qualitative content analysis was used to examine …
• This study utilised clustering techniques to identify …
• Contemporary source material was used to examine …
• This study was exploratory and interpretative in nature.
• This study uses a qualitative case study approach to investigate …
• The research data in this thesis are drawn from four main sources: ...
• This study employed survey methodology to investigate the impact of …
• The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of ...
• This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of ...
• By employing qualitative modes of enquiry, I attempt to illuminate the ...
• Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide ...
• This study makes use of oral history interviews as well as archival sources.
• Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this investigation.
• A holistic approach is utilised, integrating X, Y and Z material to establish ...
• The study was conducted in the form of a survey, with data being gathered via ...
• This project uses interviews and participant-observation to produce an account of …
• The methodological approach taken in this study is a mixed methodology based on ...
• A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used in the data analysis.

Understanding the significance of a study is crucial for contextualising its contribution to the academic discourse. This section elucidates the importance and relevance of the current study, shedding light on its potential to generate new insights, address existing gaps, and advance knowledge in the field. By elucidating the significance of their work, researchers provide readers with a framework for comprehending the broader implications and practical applications of their findings. Let's explore how researchers articulate the significance of their studies, laying the groundwork for meaningful scholarly engagement and further exploration.

• This is the first study to …
• This work will generate fresh insights into …
• Understanding the link between X and Y will help …
• The study should provide some important insights into ...
• This is the first study to undertake a longitudinal analysis of ...
• Investigating X is critically important in our understanding of …
• It is anticipated that findings from the project will help guide …
• The importance and originality of this study is that it explores …
• The present research explores, for the first time, the effects of …
• The findings should make an important contribution to the field of ....
• It is hoped that this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of …
• This study aims to contribute to this growing area of research by exploring ...
• This project provides an important opportunity to advance our understanding of ...
• Therefore, this study makes a major contribution to research on X by demonstrating ...
• There are several important areas where this study makes an original contribution to ...
• The experimental work presented here provides one of the first investigations into how …

• This study/research/investigation:
• sheds new light on …
• provides new insights into …
• fills a gap in the research on …
• gives us new information on …
• fills a gap in the literature by …
• offers a fresh perspective on …
• enhances our understanding of …
• contributes to our knowledge of …
• makes an important contribution by …
• provides the first extensive examination of …

Employing academic prose offers several advantages in structuring papers or dissertations. It allows for clear organisation, facilitating the reader's comprehension and navigation through the content. Additionally, academic writing fosters a formal and authoritative tone, lending credibility to the author's arguments and findings. By adhering to academic conventions, writers ensure their work meets scholarly standards, enhancing its potential impact and relevance within the academic community. In this section, we outline the structure of a paper or dissertation, demonstrating how academic prose can effectively convey complex ideas and research findings.

• The first section of this paper will examine ...
• This paper begins by ... It will then go on to ...
• The essay has been organised in the following way: ...
• The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: ...
• The main issues addressed in this paper are: a), b) and c).
• This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
• This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...

Providing an outline of the structure of a thesis or dissertation is fundamental for guiding readers through the complexities of academic research. This section delineates the organisation and layout of a thesis or dissertation, offering a roadmap that elucidates the progression of ideas and analysis. By delineating the structural framework, researchers facilitate comprehension and navigation, ensuring that readers grasp the logical flow and thematic coherence of their scholarly work. Let's explore how researchers outline the structure of their theses or dissertations, underscoring the importance of clarity and coherence in academic writing.

• This thesis is composed of four themed chapters.
• The overall structure of the study takes the form of six chapters.
• The thesis is divided into three distinct sections. The first section …
• The third chapter is concerned with the methodology employed for this study.
• Chapter 2 will consider both the sources and methods of study which will include …
• The purpose of the final chapter is to reflect on the extent to which this study has …
• Chapter 4 analyses the data gathered and addresses each of the research questions in turn.
• Chapter 5 analyses the results of interviews and focus group discussions undertaken during ...
• The fifth section presents the findings of the research, focusing on the three key themes that ...
• Chapter Two begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how ...

Exploring existing literature is fundamental in academic research. This section provides example phrases for relevant scholarly works, to highlight key observations and insights.

The literature on X has highlighted several key aspects...

Much of the literature concerns X rather than Y...

Different theories exist in the literature regarding...

More recent attention has focused on the provision of...

There are relatively few historical studies in the area of...

A great deal of previous research into X has focused on...

A large and growing body of literature has investigated...

Much of the literature since the mid-1990s emphasizes...

Much of the current literature on X pays particular attention to...

There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of...

There is a relatively small body of literature that is concerned with...

The existing literature on X is extensive and focuses particularly on...

The generalizability of much published research on this issue is problematic...

A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies...

What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how...

The academic literature on X has revealed the emergence of several contrasting themes.

In academic writing, effectively contrasting evidence or ideas is essential for presenting a comprehensive perspective. This section provides valuable phrases and terminology to assist students in articulating differing viewpoints drawn from various sources.

Other writers have posited that...

Several studies have arrived at the conclusion that...

In contrast to Smith's perspective, Jones (2013) contends that...

Smith (2010) advocates for an X-centric viewpoint, whereas Jones (2011)...

While Smith (2008) concentrates on X, Jones (2009) directs attention towards...

Smith (213) takes a broader view, advocating that...

In defiance of prior research, Johnson et al. showcased the effectiveness of...

This outcome contradicts the findings of Smith (1965), who previously noted that...

Conversely, Smith (2010) found no discernible disparity in mortality rates between X and Y.

Some writers, exemplified by Smith (2002), have endeavored to delineate distinctions between...

Others, such as Jones (2003) and Brown (2004), cast doubt on...

Certain authors have primarily focused on inquiries related to X (Smith, 2001; Jones...), while...

While Smith identifies X as the primary facet of Y, Jones (2000) diverges by placing emphasis on...

Despite a substantial portion of existing literature addressing the issue of X, Smith (2008) directs attention towards...

However, Smith (2012) presents a differing viewpoint...

Contrary to this, Jones (2014) and Brown (2015) argue...

Smith (2013) discovered that X constitutes approximately 30% of Y. Nevertheless,...

Conversely, Jones (2010) found little substantiating evidence in their study of Y.